In 1964, a reporter knocked on the door of a modest home in Queens, New York. The woman who answered was a housewife married to an American citizen for nearly a decade. Her name was Hermine Braunsteiner Ryan. Twenty years earlier, she had been a guard at the Majdanek concentration camp.
When Allied forces liberated the camps between late 1944 and May 1945, they found not only survivors but also guards who had failed to flee. At Bergen-Belsen, British troops arrived on April 15, 1945, to discover approximately 60,000 prisoners in terrible conditions and hundreds of SS personnel still present. Commandant Josef Kramer and dozens of staff members were arrested on site. At Dachau, American soldiers of the 42nd and 45th Infantry Divisions arrived on April 29, 1945, finding over 30,000 prisoners and roughly 560 SS personnel.
Similar scenes unfolded at Buchenwald, Mauthausen, and dozens of other facilities across Germany and Austria. Historians estimate that around 50,000 men served as SS guards during the war. Several thousand women also worked as overseers, known as Aufseherinnen, at facilities like Ravensbrück and Auschwitz-Birkenau. By May 1945, thousands of these personnel remained in Allied custody, while others had discarded their uniforms and disappeared into the chaos of post-war Europe.
Justice came quickly for some. The Bergen-Belsen trial opened on September 17, 1945, at Lüneburg, just five months after liberation. Forty-five defendants faced a British military court, including Kramer, SS doctor Fritz Klein, and 22-year-old guard Irma Grese. The trial lasted two months, and eleven received death sentences.
On December 13, 1945, British executioner Albert Pierrepoint hanged Kramer, Grese, and nine others at Hameln prison. Grese became the youngest woman executed under British law in the 20th century. The Americans conducted their own proceedings. The Dachau trials ran from August 1945 to December 1947, prosecuting personnel from Dachau, Mauthausen, Buchenwald, and Flossenbürg.
Hundreds were convicted, and hundreds more received death or life sentences. All executions took place at Landsberg prison. Prosecutors argued that anyone who served at a camp where atrocities occurred shared responsibility for those crimes. Female guards faced prosecution alongside men.
Maria Mandl, who had served as chief overseer at Auschwitz-Birkenau, was extradited to Poland and tried before the Supreme National Tribunal in Krakow. On January 24, 1948, she was executed. But not all female guards were captured. Hermine Braunsteiner, who had served at Ravensbrück and later Majdanek, slipped out of Austria and into the chaos of post-war Europe.
By 1948, she was gone. The early momentum would not last. As Cold War tensions rose, Allied priorities began to shift. By the end of 1948, the wave of Allied prosecutions had largely ended.
The Dachau trials concluded in December 1947, and the British and French wrapped up their proceedings soon after. Across Western Europe, attention turned from punishment to reconstruction. West Germany, established in May 1949, was now a front-line state against Soviet expansion. Its new leaders wanted stability, not endless reminders of the recent past.
In 1951, the West German government passed amnesty laws that released thousands of convicted war criminals from prison. Many had served only a fraction of their sentences. At Landsberg prison, clemency boards reviewed cases and reduced sentences wholesale. By 1955, nearly all of the Landsberg prisoners had been freed.
Chancellor Konrad Adenauer’s government argued that continued prosecutions threatened social cohesion and complicated rearmament efforts. Veterans groups lobbied aggressively for the release of men they called soldiers, not criminals. Across West Germany, prosecutors quietly closed investigations. Denazification tribunals, which had processed millions of cases in the late 1940s, increasingly classified former Nazis as followers rather than active perpetrators.
Former guards who had avoided early prosecution now found themselves largely ignored by a justice system focused elsewhere. Many guards simply resumed ordinary lives. They returned to their hometowns, found work in factories and shops, and raised families without consequence. Some assumed new identities or moved to new cities to avoid recognition.
Others did not bother. In the silence of the 1950s, few Germans asked uncomfortable questions about their neighbors’ wartime service. Historians later described this period as one of widespread suppression, a time when perpetrators and bystanders alike chose forgetting over confrontation with the past. A small number fled abroad.
With forged documents and assistance from sympathetic networks, some former SS personnel escaped Europe entirely. Routes ran through Austria and Italy to South America, where Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay offered refuge. Spain under Franco also sheltered former Nazis, and others reached Syria and Egypt. For low-ranking guards, immigration often required less dramatic measures.
Canada, Australia, and the United States all accepted German immigrants during the 1950s, and screening procedures varied widely. Some former guards entered legally, their pasts undiscovered or deliberately overlooked by immigration officials eager to fill labor shortages. Hermine Braunsteiner was one of them. In 1959, she arrived in Canada, then moved to New York.
By 1963, she had married an American, obtained citizenship, and was quietly living in Queens. By the mid-1950s, justice for camp personnel had essentially stalled. Then, in 1958, a single trial in a small German city changed everything. In the spring of 1958, a trial opened in the southern German city of Ulm.
Ten former members of an SS and police unit stood accused of participating in the killing of thousands of Jewish civilians along the German-Lithuanian border in 1941. The proceedings revealed something troubling: these men had lived openly in West Germany for over a decade. Some held government jobs. None had faced serious investigation.
The Ulm Einsatzkommando trial exposed how thoroughly the justice system had failed to pursue perpetrators still living within its borders. The response was swift. In December 1958, the justice ministers of West Germany’s 11 states established a new agency in the town of Ludwigsburg. The Central Office for the Investigation of National Socialist Crimes, known as the Zentrale Stelle, would coordinate investigations across the country.
Its mandate was to gather evidence, identify suspects, and refer cases to local prosecutors. For the first time, West Germany had a dedicated institution focused on tracking down those responsible for Nazi-era atrocities. The agency began with a small staff working from a former prison building. Over the decades, it would help bring nearly 7,000 individuals to trial.
The Zentrale Stelle’s work led to landmark prosecutions, the most significant being the Frankfurt Auschwitz trial, which ran from December 1963 to August 1965. Twenty-two defendants faced charges for crimes committed at Auschwitz. The proceedings lasted 20 months and heard testimony from over 350 witnesses. Six defendants received life sentences.
The trial forced German society to confront what had occurred in these facilities, reaching millions through radio broadcasts and extensive newspaper coverage. Efforts also extended beyond Germany’s borders. Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal, operating from Vienna, had spent years tracking former perpetrators who fled abroad. In 1964, he received a tip about a woman living in Queens, New York.
Her name was Hermine Braunsteiner Ryan, the same Hermine Braunsteiner who had served at Ravensbrück and Majdanek. Survivors later described her as exceptionally brutal, giving her the nickname “the Stomping Mare. ” Wiesenthal passed the information to the New York Times, and a reporter knocked on her door. When confronted, she denied everything, but the investigation had begun.
In 1971, the United States revoked her citizenship. On August 7, 1973, she became the first Nazi war criminal extradited from America to face trial in West Germany. The Majdanek trial began in November 1975 and lasted nearly six years. On June 30, 1981, Braunsteiner was sentenced to life imprisonment.
She had lived freely for nearly three decades. For decades, German prosecutors faced the same obstacle. To convict a former guard, they needed evidence of a specific criminal act. Testimony placing someone at a camp was not enough; the defendant had to be linked to a specific act against a named victim.
This requirement protected thousands of lower-ranking personnel who had served at facilities where mass atrocities occurred but whose individual actions could not be documented. Then, in 2011, a case in Munich changed the legal landscape entirely. John Demjanjuk was a Ukrainian-born former auto worker who had lived in Ohio for decades. Evidence indicated he had served as a guard at Sobibor in occupied Poland during 1943.
Prosecutors charged him not with specific acts, but with being an accessory to the deaths of everyone who perished at the site during his service. On May 12, 2011, a Munich court convicted Demjanjuk as an accessory to tens of thousands of murders committed during the period he served there. He was sentenced to five years in prison. The verdict established a new precedent.
For the first time, a German court ruled that serving at a site built for systematic killing was itself sufficient for conviction. No evidence of individual criminal acts was required. Demjanjuk died in March 2012 before his appeal could be heard, but the precedent survived. German prosecutors, now armed with a new legal framework, launched investigations into elderly former guards who had escaped justice for seven decades.
The Zentrale Stelle compiled lists of potential defendants still living in Germany and abroad. The most prominent case that followed was that of Oskar Gröning, known as the “bookkeeper of Auschwitz. ” Gröning had served at the Auschwitz complex from 1942 to 1944, collecting and counting the money taken from arriving prisoners and sending it to Berlin. He had never denied his service and had even spoken publicly about what he witnessed.
In July 2015, a court in Lüneburg convicted Gröning, then 94 years old, holding him legally responsible as an accessory in the murder of 300,000 people. He was sentenced to four years in prison. The verdict confirmed that the Demjanjuk precedent would hold: working at a camp, even in an administrative role, was enough. Additional prosecutions followed.
Former guards in their 90s faced charges for service at Auschwitz, Stutthof, and other camps. Some trials ended before verdicts could be delivered, as defendants died or were declared unfit to stand trial. Critics questioned whether prosecuting elderly individuals decades after the fact served any meaningful purpose. Supporters argued that justice has no expiration date and that documenting these crimes remained essential for historical memory and future accountability.
Hermine Braunsteiner died in 1999 after 16 years in prison. Oskar Gröning died in 2018 before serving a single day of his sentence. Between them, they represented the two outcomes for camp guards who faced justice: one caught in time, one caught too late.
Most were never caught at all.