Pope John XII, born Octavian, is remembered as one of the most scandalous pontiffs in the history of the Catholic Church, a teenage pope whose brief reign was defined by political chaos, personal indulgence, and a spectacular downfall that ended with him being deposed, returning to power, and dying under circumstances that remain disputed. Born into Roman nobility, Octavian was the son of Alberik II, the self-proclaimed prince of Rome who effectively controlled the city. The identity of his mother is unclear, with some accounts suggesting she was an unnamed concubine, while others claim she was Alda of Vienne, a woman who was also Alberik’s stepsister and married him for political reasons. His father gave him the name Octavian, a deliberate reference to Augustus Caesar, the first Roman emperor, and to an ancient Etruscan prince.
The choice signaled that the family expected him to build a great and lasting dynasty, though the path he took was not one that would bring them pride. Rather than being trained for a religious life, Octavian was raised in the manner of a Roman aristocrat, with an emphasis on combat and the skills expected of a nobleman. Academic learning was not a priority, and he was essentially prepared for a life of privilege and excess, which would later contribute to his disastrous tenure as pope. When his father died in 954, likely of a fever, Octavian was only about 16 years old.
Before his death, Alberik had secured an oath from Rome’s nobles promising the papal throne to his son. The oath was honored, and Octavian became Pope John XII at approximately age 17, while also inheriting his father’s secular position as prince of Rome. The combination of immense power and youth quickly corrupted the new pope. He was accused of having sexual relations with numerous women, including widows, his father’s mistress, and even his own niece.
While the truth of every accusation cannot be confirmed, the pattern of behavior was consistent with his reputation. He made an attempt to separate his two roles, using the name Octavian for secular matters and John for church affairs. This did little to mask his incompetence in either capacity, as he consistently prioritized his own interests over the responsibilities of his offices. Around 960, John XII launched a military campaign against German duchies, intending to reclaim territory that belonged to the Papal States.
The expedition was poorly planned and badly organized, and his forces were routed. The humiliation of this defeat was compounded by what followed at home. Under his father, Rome’s factions had remained restrained. Under John, however, they flourished, and he actively encouraged the chaos that swept through the Papal States.
Whether this was due to incompetence or a simple desire to exercise his power is unclear, but the result was that Rome’s citizens saw no peace under his rule. With church funds at his disposal and his position as a prince, he turned Rome into his personal playground. He paid his guards well to ensure his safety while he pursued a life of pleasure, giving money and land to his favorites. The disorder in Rome made it an attractive target for outside powers, and the king of Italy soon made an attempt to take the city.
Desperate for help, John sent for King Otto I of Germany in 960. Otto, who had united a kingdom through strength and discipline, stood in stark contrast to the pope on nearly every level. Despite the differences between them, John welcomed Otto into Rome with open arms when the German king agreed to help. After Otto defeated the king of Italy in battle in 961, John crowned him Holy Roman Emperor in 962, having promised to do so in exchange for protection.
The decision was deeply unpopular with the citizens of Rome, who resented the presence of an outsider. Otto, for his part, did not trust the young pope and expected an assassination attempt during the coronation. Instead, John made extravagant promises to Otto, agreeing never to touch his lands, never to allow him harm, and never to provide aid to the king of Italy or his son. John believed he had made an excellent deal, reasoning that the title of Holy Roman Emperor was empty and that as pope, he held all the real power.
He viewed Otto as little more than a bodyguard and considered his people barbarians. For a time, John appeared to cooperate. On February 12, 962, at Otto’s urging, he convened a council in Rome and actually conducted church business as expected. Two days later, Otto left Rome to deal with the king of Italy, who had renewed his ambitions.
As soon as the emperor was gone, John reverted to his old behavior. Facing renewed threats, John decided to betray Otto. He sent envoys to the battlefield with plans to combine forces against the emperor. More shockingly, he entered negotiations with Adelbert, the son of the king of Italy, offering him the very title that John had just granted to Otto.
Otto captured John’s envoys and learned of the betrayal. Despite this, he gave the pope the benefit of the doubt and sent his own envoys to Rome to set matters straight. What they found there was a city in disarray. The Papal States had fallen into anarchy, and the number of pilgrims visiting Rome had dried up, eliminating a crucial source of revenue.
The people were ready to revolt, and John appeared indifferent, spending his time gambling and hunting while his city teetered on the edge of collapse. When John finally communicated with Otto, he offered a series of transparent lies. He apologized for the misunderstanding, claimed to be reformed thanks to Otto, and then attacked the emperor’s character, accusing him of failing to protect the Papal States. He even admitted to negotiating with Adelbert, though he insisted this was part of his plan to deceive him.
By 963, John had convinced Adelbert to enter Rome with the promise of the imperial crown. Otto, having achieved a decisive victory over the king of Italy, could no longer ignore the situation and marched his army toward Rome. The city was divided. Some Romans supported Otto and fortified themselves in one section, while John and his supporters held another.
When Otto’s forces arrived to besiege the city, John fled, but not before stopping at St. Peter’s Basilica to plunder the papal treasury and take whatever treasures he could carry. Otto entered Rome and summoned a council three days later. The council deposed John XII and appointed a new pope, Leo VII.
However, the Romans, unhappy with an outsider appointing their officials, revolted in support of John despite everything he had done. After putting down the rebellion at a heavy cost, Otto left Rome, leaving Leo with only a few guards. As soon as the emperor departed, John returned with a large group of supporters. Leo fled, and John summoned a council of his own.
The council was an embarrassment. He could barely gather 30 members. After what was described as a rare moment of self-reflection, John decided to let the matter go. With Otto gone and Leo excommunicated, Rome returned to the chaos the pope preferred.
John lived this way for three months. On May 14, 964, his life came to a sudden end. The exact circumstances are uncertain. According to one account, he died during a sexual encounter, either from a stroke brought on by the excitement or at the hands of an enraged husband who beat him to death.
Regardless of which version is true, the manner of his death was consistent with the life he had led.